Xenotransplantation Essay -- Medical Research Transplant Donor Essays

Xenotransplantation Physicians today are faced with a growing list of patients awaiting transplants for organs that have failed, but there are not enough donors to meet these needs. Countries all over the world have a â€Å"human organ shortage† and the waiting lists for organ transplants only seem to grow longer (Melo 427). In the United States 62,000 patients needed a kidney, liver, or pancreatic transplant in the year 2001. Xenotransplantation, which refers to the transplantation of organs, cells, or tissues from animal species into human beings, has been heralded as a promising technology that will help us save more lives and lessen the dire shortage of transplantable organs. Organs from pigs, goats, monkeys, chimpanzees, and baboons have been used in xenotransplant experiments conducted so far. It promises to be a good treatment option for patients with end-stage organ failure (Williams 12). The transplant surgery could be scheduled at the patient’s convenience rather than scheduling an emergency surgery as soon as the human donor is found. Patients would be able to receive transplants when they first need them rather than having to wait until a transplant is the only remaining option that can save their lives. When transplants are conducted earlier, the patient will be stronger and have a better chance of recovering. Xenotransplantation appears to have several advantages as a medical procedure, but like any medical procedure it is not without its risks. Before we embrace xenotransplantation as yet another boon of science, we need to consider the ethical dilemmas surrounding this medical technology. History of Xenotransplantation The concept of using animal organs in human beings is not a new one. On... ... Xenotransplantation.† Bioethics. 2001 Vol 15 Number5/6. Nelson, James Lindemann. â€Å"Transplantation through a Glass Darkly.† Hastings Center Report. Sept-Oct 1992: 6-8. [Online] http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/GEessays/Transplantation.htm â€Å"The Ethical Implications of Xenotransplantation.† American Medical Association. CEJA Reports 2000-2002. [Online] http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/upload/mm/369/ceja_report_113.pdf Veatch, Robert M. The Basics of Bioethics. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000. Williams, Rebecca D. â€Å"Organ Transplants from Animals.† FDA Consumer. June 1996, Vol 30 Issue 5. [Online] http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/596_xeno.html Windsor, Roger G. â€Å"Spare Body Parts from Animals.† Spectrum: The Wholistic News Magazine. Mar-Apr 1997. â€Å"Xenotransplantation.† Natural Life. Jan-Feb 2000, Issue 71. [Online] http://www.life.ca/nl/71/xeno.html

Higher Education and Poverty Reduction Among the Youth

HIGHER EDUCATION AND POVERTY REDUCTION AMONG THE YOUTH BY OKUNOLA, PHILIP OLAYIDE (Ph. D), ONYENE. V. E(Ph. D. )([email  protected] com) SUBAR, S. TAYO. ASHIRU, AL-MAHROOF OLASEEWO ([email  protected] ca) PAPER PRESENTED AT THE 8TH REGIONAL CONFERENCE OF HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH POLICY NETWORK VENUE: INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR TROPICAL AGRICULTURE (IITA), IBADAN AUGUST, 2008 ABSTRACTEducation in Nigeria and higher education in particular, are fundamental to the construction of a knowledge economy and worthwhile society in any nation hence, from a global perspective, economic, political, technological and social developments are increasingly driven by the advancement and application of knowledge, skills and socialization acquired in the process of this education. This paper presents an empirical study of higher education and poverty reduction among the youth using the University of Lagos, Nigeria. A total of 330 youth population comprised the sample drawn from the eight facultie s on campus.Three hypotheses were formulated and tested using chi-square statistical tool at 0. 05 level of significance. The major findings are that higher education is significant in exposing the youth to talent discovery, physical and intellectual development among the youth and has high potency reduction for poverty reduction among the youth. Introduction The dawn of the 21st century has brought profound and fundamental changes to economics, technology, politics, culture, morals, social values and ethics. Globalization is the driving force in all these changes.While globalization has induced the collapse of time and space, it has also expanded opportunities and challenges for individuals and for nations and has sidelined the weak and unprepared. Anya (2002). The task of the university education will then be to empower the youths to be able to cope with the dynamics of globalization. Consequently the university must have an organic linkage with the industrial and economic environ ment to contribute to economic growth of the nation. Education has for long been recognized and accepted as a panacea for Nigeria’s ills and woes. Particularly so is the case of higher education.Stupendous amount of money and other resources, even though inadequate are expended on the universities annually. Unarguably al stakeholders look up to the universities as the nation’s beacon of hope, light and civilization. For this reason, besides over 50 public universities are springing up all over the nooks and crannies of the country (Ejiogu and Onyene, 2006). Nigeria ‘s philosophy of education is aimed at education that foster the worth and development of the individual, for each individuals sake, and for the general development of the society there is need for empowerment so as to break the chains of poverty for necessary liberation.Are the Nigerian youths hopeful? Do they see the light? Are they civilized? The quest and agitation for the empowerment of the youth and their liberation through higher education is fast becoming almost hysterical given the often reported cases of incessant strike actions by lecturers, lack or inadequate infrastructures in the universities, brain drain, and so on, within the university system. Instance abound when university graduates are not employable in the labour market.The situation becomes worrisome and intriguing with the jet-speed rate of opening up of new universities with its attendant alleged unemployment of â€Å"unqualified† staff, and stragglers from older universities. The Concept of Higher Education and Poverty Higher education means different things to many people, but the purpose is perceived to be the same. It is the type of education that focuses on professionalization, by empowering the partaker of this level of education with skills that are not necessarily the function of formal educational process.This type of skills emanates from students’ interaction with their peers, teach ers and other members of their academic community. Though these experiences that culminate into skills makes students sojourn in their academic environment a complete one, which necessitates the saying â€Å" passing through the school without the school passing through the student† The proponents of this statement are of the opinion that students who passed through the school without the school passing through them have learnt only partially regardless of their grades at the end of their academic pursuit in the university, thereby limiting their opportunities.This is corroborated by Gay 2005, who opined that poverty can only be eliminated if the students to whom implicit promises are being by urging them to attend school actually receive some tangible benefit for their years spent in school. Higher education includes teaching, research and social service activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education and the graduate school). Higher education generally involves work towards a degree level or foundation for degree qualification.In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enters higher education is therefore every important to national economy, both as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. Schofield, K. 1999. Higher education is based on theoretical expertise. It might be contrasted with higher vocational education, which concentrates on both practice and theory. Deciding to further education and attain a degree tends to improve many aspects of life.People with college degrees tend to earn more money and salary increases over the years are more substantial than for those that do not have a college degree or university degree. Additionally, people that have a college degree are less likely to go through long bouts of unemployment. However attaining certifications and/or degrees related t o your field can yield better jobs and ongoing opportunities (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). University qualifications need to match employers’ and labour market requirements as closely as possible.Mass unemployment of university graduates is the result where university programmes and the labour market are at variance. The issue of relevance, utilitarian criteria based on prospects of income generation at completion of a programme should be uppermost in the programmes provided by universities. The idea of pursuing knowledge for its own sake or of the sake of engaging in a programme of study given a passion for learning in a particular subject area will seem acquaint if it is remembered at all. (Roberts, 1999).Youth (in the developed world): like all identities, is a culturally relative manifestation whose meanings and applications are specific to certain times and manifestation whose meaning and applications are specific to certain times and locales. For those living in p resent-day western cultures, the term youth refers to persons who are no longer children and not yet adults. In a strictly legal sense, the term is typically applied to a person from the time of their early teens until a point between 16 and 21, after which the person is legally an adult. As an adult they are endowed priviledges such as the right to vote and consume alcohol e. c. used colloquially, however, the term generally refers to a broader, more ambiguous field of reference – from physically adolescent to those in their late 20s, the United Nations, for example, defines youth as people between the ages of 15 and 24 years inclusive (United Nations Education and Scientific Children Organisation, 2002b). Poverty refers to a situation and process of serious deprivation or lack of resources and material necessary for living within a minimum standard conducive to human dignity and well being (NEST, 1991). Poverty connotes deprivation of the means of subsistence. The manifesta tion of poverty, i. inadequate distribution of resources, access to basic social services like education and health, food scarcity, low life expectancy, and lack of participation in decision making processes (Braun, 1999, Carrey 1999;World Bank 1999; Web et al 1992;Ravnborg, 1996). For the purpose of this paper poverty is viewed as deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life, which include food, clothing, shelter and safe drinking water, and may also include the deprivation of opportunities to learn, to obtain better employment to escape poverty and/or to enjoy the respect of fellow citizens.This can be measured in terms of absolute or relative poverty. Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent in over time between countries. An example of an absolute measurement would be the percentage of the population eating less food than is required to sustain the human body, which may lead to extreme poverty. United Nations 2002 report defines extre me poverty as â€Å"poverty that kills†, depriving individuals of the means to stay alive in the face of hunger, disease and environmental hazards.This is further substantiated by Moore (2007) in his report for the World Bank, that extreme poverty implies living on less than 1 dollar per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 a day. The proportion of the developing world’s population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28 percent in 1990 to 21 percent in 2001. Looking at the period 1981 – 2001, the percentage of the world’s population living on less than $1 per day has halved.Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished â€Å"capability† of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of access to information, education, health care, or po litical power. Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal social status and inequitable social relationships, experienced as exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.Statement of the Problem The growth and development of this country will to a large extent be determined by quality, in character and in learning, of the products of our universities. UNESCO policy (1997) posited that basic education for all should incorporate: literacy, income generation, health care, child care, family planning, food management, union education, labour laws, civil and voting rights, peace education, environmental management, HIV/AIDS and drug awareness (UNESCO 2002). The questions are what is the hope of Nigerian youth in universities? Do they really discover their potentials having gone through the university?What then can we say are the contributions of Nigeria universities to poverty reduction among the Nigerian youth? It becomes imperative, therefore, to ascertain the potency of Nigerian higher education for poverty reduction among the youth and to proffer measures for enhancement and sustainability of youth empowerment. Methodology The study was carried out using the descriptive survey research design. The youths in University of Lagos constituted the study which comprises 500 respondents. They were diploma and 100-300 level students, from the eight faculties of the University of Lagos, Akoka campus, Lagos, Nigeria.Higher Education Potency for Poverty Reduction Questionnaire (HEPPRQ) designed by the researchers was the data-gathering instrument. It measure sure such poverty reduction potencies as talent discovery, facilitation of mind development in the youth, good leadership skills, enabling intellectual development, development of social ethics through positive interaction, exposure to entrepreneurial activities, provision of mindset for creative ideas, preparation for rend ering payable service (income generation), inculcation of technological ideas for product development, self esteem mong peers, position of youth for global alignment with contemporaries in the western world and realization of the academic inclination (discipline). Colleagues affirmed the face validity and reliability of the instrument The researchers personally distributed the questionnaire to 500 respondents across the 8 faculties on campus on different occasions; some of the respondents returned the questionnaire immediately while others returned theirs the following day. Of the 500 copies of the questionnaire distributed, 330 (66%) usable copies were returned.However, the analysis was done using both descriptive and inferential statistics. To be precise, simple percentage and chi-square statistical tools were used. Findings Total response of the respondents was done by finding the percentages. The analysis is presented in table1. Table 1: Frequency count of responses and percenta ge ratings. |S/N |POTENCY INDICES |ALWAYS |OFTEN |SOMETIMES |NEVER |TOTAL | |1 |University environment and talent |200(60. 60%) |20(6. 06%) |110(33. 3%) | – |330 | | |discovery | | | | | | |2 |Higher education development and e |160(48. 48%) |90(27. 27%) |30(9. 09%) |50(15. 15%) |330 | | |youth’s minds | | | | | | |3 |Higher education and good leadership|190(57. 57%) |50(15. 15%) |50(15. 15%) |40(12. 12%) |330 | |4 |Higher education and intellectual |200(60. 60%) |50(15. 5%) |70(21. 21%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |development | | | | | | |5 |Social ethics through the university|170(51. 51%) |70(21. 21%) |80(24. 24%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | |6 |Higher education, parliamentary and |120(36. 36%) |110(33. 33%) |90(27. 27%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |governance process | | | | | | |7 |Entrepreneurial activities at school|110 |120(36. 6%) |80(24. 24%) |20(6. 06%) |330 | | | |(33. 33%) | | | | | |8 |University environment and mindset |170 |100(30. 30%) |50(15. 15%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |for creative ideas |(51. 51%) | | | | | |9 |Rendering payable service (income | 170 | 80 |40(12. 12%) |40(12. 2%) |330 | | |generation) |(51. 51%) |(24. 24%) | | | | |10 |University education and | 180 | 70 | 70 | 10 |330 | | |technological ideas |(54. 54%) |(21. 21%) |(21. 21%) |(3. 03%) | | |11 |Employment with related industries | 70 | 80 | 150 | 30 |330 | | | |(21. 1%) |(24. 24%) |(45. 45%) |(9. 09%) | | |12 |Sustenance in the face of job |110 | 90 | 110 | 20 |330 | | |scarcity |(33. 33%) |(27. 27%) |(33. 33%) |(6. 06%) | | |13 |Apart from certification, university| 190 | 120 | 20 | – |330 | | |environment and self esteem |(57. 57%) |(36. 36%) |(6. 6%) | | | |14 |Global alignment with my | 190 | 100 | 30 | 10 |330 | | |contemporaries in the western world |(57. 57%) |(30. 30%) |(9. 09%) |(3. 03%) | | |15 |Relevance of their academic | 150 | 120 | 60 | 30 |330 | | |inclination (discipline) outside |(45. 45%) |(36. 36%) |(18. 18%) |(9. 9%) | | | |their myopic perception | | | | | | Hypothesis 1 There will be no significant influence of higher education exposure on youth talent discovery. To test this hypothesis, the chi-square statistical tool was employed and tested at 0. 05 level of significance. The results are presented in table 2 below. Table 2: higher education and talent discovery. |S/N |Items |Always |Often |Sometimes |Never |Total | | |1. 200(60. 60%) |20(6. 06%) |110(33. 33%) |- |330 | | |2. |160(48. 48%) |90(27. 27%) |30(9. 09%) |50(15. 15%) |330 | | |3. |190(57. 57%) |50(15. 15%) |50(15. 15%) |40(12. 12%) |330 | | |4. |200(60. 60%) |50(15. 15%) |70(21. 21%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |5. |170(51. 51%) |70(21. 21%) |80(24. 24%) |10(3. 3%) |330 | | |Column Total |920 |280 |140 |110 |1650 | | |Average Total |460(55. 75%) |140(16. 96%) |70(20. 60%) |55(6. 66%) |825 | Chi-square observed value = 52. 63 Degree of freedom = 12 Level of significance = 0. 05 Critical Value = 21. 03 The result revealed that the observed value (52. 63) is greater than the crit ical table value (21. 03) given 12 degree of freedom at 0. 5 level of significance. The result is therefore significant, thus giving a basis for rejection of the null hypothesis. It can then be inferred that higher education has significant influence on the exposure of youth to talent discovery. Hypothesis 2 Higher education will have no significant influence on the physical and intellectual development of the youth. To test this hypothesis, the chi-square statistical tool was employed and tested at 0. 05 level of significance. The results are presented in table 3 below. Table 3: Higher education, Physical and Intellectual Development S/N |Items |Always |Often |Sometimes |Never |Total | | |6 |120(36. 36%) |110(33. 33%) |90(27. 27%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |7 |110(33. 33%) |120(36. 36%) |80(24. 24%) |20(6. 06%) |330 | | |8 |170(51. 51%) |100(30. 30%) |50(15. 15%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |9 |170(51. 1%) |80(24. 24%) |40(12. 12%) |40(12. 12%) |330 | | |10 |180(54. 54%) |70(21. 21%) |70(21. 2 1%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |Column Total |750 |480 |330 |90 |1650 | | |Average Total |375(45. 45%) |240(29. 09%) |165(20%) |45(5. 45%) |825 | From the responses of the participants in the table, it is realized that the observed chi-square (49. 6) is greater than the critical value (21. 03) at 12 degree of freedom and at 0. 05 level of significance. The result is therefore significant, thus higher education will have significant influence on physical and intellectual development of the youth. Hypothesis 3 Higher education will make significant provision of resources and materials for youths’ adequate living. To test this hypothesis, the chi-square statistical tool was employed and tested at 0. 05 level of significance. The results are presented in table 4 below. Table 4: Higher Education and Youth Adequate Living. S/N |Items |Always |Often |Sometimes |Never |Total | | |11 |70(21. 21%) |80(24. 24%) |150(45. 45%) |30(9. 09%) |330 | | |12 |110(33. 33%) |110(33. 33%) |110(33. 33%) | 20(6. 06%) |330 | | |13 |190(57. 57%) |20(6. 06%) |20(6. 06%) |- |330 | | |14 |190(57. 57%) |30(9. 09%) |30(9. 9%) |10(3. 03%) |330 | | |15 |150(45. 45%) |120(36. 36%) |60(18. 18%) |30(9. 09%) |330 | | |Column Total |710 |510 |370 |60 |1650 | | |Average Total |355(43. 03%) |255(30. 90%) |185(22. 42%) |30(3. 63%) |825 | Chi-square observed = 195. 41 Degree of freedom = 12 Significance level = 0. 05 Critical value = 21. 03The table above reflects that the chi-square calculated (195. 41) exceed the critical value (21. 03) at 12 degree of freedom and 0. 05 level of significance. Thus higher education provides resources and materials for youths adequate living. Results and Discussion Analysis revealed that the study population consisted of 330 participants, 210(63. 63%) were males and 120 (36. 365) females whose age ranges from 15 to 30 years. 300(90. 90%) were single and 30 (9. 09%) were married. 40 (12. 12%) were in diploma 1, 10 (3. 03%) in diploma 2, 90 (27. 27%) in 100 level, 40 (12 . 12%) in 200 level and 150 (45. 45%) in 300 level respectively.Table shows the item-by-item analysis of the perception of the youth towards the potency indices of higher education concerning poverty reduction. Majority of the youth (60. 60%) who participated in the study were of the opinion that university environment enables the youth to discover their talents and higher education poses challenges that enables intellectual development in the youth. 57. 57% of the respondents were in tune with the fact that higher education inculcates good leadership skills in the youth, apart from certification, being in the university environment gives them self esteem among their contemporaries in the western world.Also 51. 51% of the respondents who are in the majority opined that they gain social ethics through positive interaction with their peers while in the university. University environment provides the youth with the mindset for creative ideas and talents developed in the university prep are them to render payable service (income generation). 48. 48% of the participants who were in the majority believed that higher education facilitates the development of youths’ mind, 45. 45% were in tune with the fact that higher education make the youth realize the relevance of their academic inclination (discipline) outside their myopic perception.Majority of the respondents (54. 54%) admit that university education inculcates technological ideas that can facilitate product development. However, 45. 45% of the respondents felt that youth only sometimes get employment with industries related to their discipline before graduation, but 21. 21% and 24. 24% of them believe that youth with university experience are always able to sustain themselves in the face of job scarcity, equal percentage the participants contends that it happens only sometimes. The findings in this study showed that: †¢ Higher education is significant in exposing the youth to talent iscovery. †¢ Higher education has significant influence on physical and intellectual development of the youth. †¢ Higher education makes significant provision of resources and materials for youths’ adequate living. The significance of higher education in exposing the youth to talent discovery is corroborated by UNESCO policy 1997, which stipulates that basic education for all should incorporate: literacy, income generation, health care, child care family planning, food management, union education, labour laws, civil and voting rights, peace education, environmental management, HIV/AIDS and drug awareness.Also the finding relating to higher education having significant influence on physical and intellectual development of youth, is justified by Subar and Ashiru 2007, they opined that the students (youth) are the core input into our educational institutions and the quality of the output (students) depends largely on the provision of infrastructures capable of directly or indirectly su pporting, facilitating, influencing and encouraging the development of their potentials.Therefore, the knowledge, skills, competences and attitudes students (youth) acquire for life can make them fit into the cultural, social, economic and political contexts of the society in which they live, and to work and employment.The finding that education makes significant provision of resources and materials for youth’s adequate living, emanates from the fact that youth get employment with industries related to their discipline even before graduation, youths with university experience are mostly able to sustain themselves in the face of job scarcity, apart from certification, being in the university environment gives the youth self esteem among their peers, higher education positions youth for global alignment with their contemporaries in the western world and education makes the youth realize the relevance of the relevance of their academic inclination (discipline) utside their myopi c perception. Conclusion ? From the foregoing, it is permissible to justify the above stated with the statement of the National Association of Colleges and Employers, â€Å"there have been steady increases in college job placement†. This means that not only are college graduates more likely to find good jobs, but they progress after college.Ashiru and Owodiong 2008 declared that the absolute position of the university graduate is declining as more educated workers are displacing less educated workers in the same job, this shows that the Nigerian youth should advance academically, this challenge to the youth is evidenced by the continuous increases in entry point requirement for jobs, for instance a degree certificate is required to teach in a secondary school, while doctoral degree is required to lecture in the university. The dawn of the 21st century has brought profound and fundamental changes to economics, technology, politics, culture, morals, social values and ethics thr ough globalization. This globalization has induced the collapse of time and space; it has also expanded opportunities and challenges for the individual and for the nations and has sidelined the weak and the unprepared. Recommendations Government and university authorities should ensure that university programmes and labour market are not at variance on the issue of relevance, utilitarian criteria based on prospects of income generation should be uppermost in the programmmes provided by the universities. ? Universities must have an organic linkage with the industrial and economic environment to contribute to economic growth. ? Acquisition of higher education should be encouraged among the youth, through scholarship awards for those who lack the resources in continuing heir education. ? Government should encourage enrollment expansion in tertiary institutions, which will avail more people the opportunity to higher education, hence empowerment through skill acquisition and enhanced int ellectuality and human capital development that will necessitate innovative ideas for job creation, employment and economic advancement. ? University authorities should integrate entrepreneurial skills into academic programmes of students for rounded preparation for the world of work. Entrepreneurial Development Programme (EDP) should be provided in all faculties to enable undergraduates develop and market products and services relevant to their areas of study. REFERENCES Anya, A. O. (2002), â€Å"Science, Oil and the Future of Nigeria Economy†, The Guardian (Lagos), Wednesday, March 13, p. 16. Ashiru, A. O. and Owodiong-Idemeko, N. L. (2008). Higher Education and the Millennium Development Goals. Lagos: Unpublished M. Ed. Thesis. Braun, J. V. ,Teklu, T. and Webb P. (1999). Famine in Africa: Causes, Responses, andPreventions. IFPRI Food Policy Statement No. 28: Washington, D. C. Carney, D. (1999) ‘Approaches to Sustainable Livelihoods for the Rural Poor’. ODI Pov erty Briefing, 2, January 1999. London: Overseas Development Institute. Carney, D. (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What contributions can we make? Department for International Development, London. David, E. B. , David C. and Kevin C (2006). Higher Education and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. Havard:Havard School of Public Health. David, M. (2007) (ed. ): The World Bank: Development, Poverty, and Hegemony.University of Kwazulu: National Press. Ejiogu, A. and Onyene V. E. (2006). Deepening Corporate Integrity in the University System, Lagos El-Khawas, Elaine. (2001). Today’s universities: responsive, resilient, or rigid? Higher Education Policy, 14, 241-248. Hartnett, Teresa. (2000). Financing trends and expenditure patterns in Nigerian federal universities: an update. Unpublished report. Washington, D. C. : The World Bank. 85 pages. John, Gay. (2005): Higher Education in Europe. Vol. 30, Nos 3-4. Jerry D. S. (March 6, 2005). The End of Poverty Time. Retrieved August 7, 2 007. ww. wikipedia. org. James, A. (2003) (ed. ): Highly Affected Rarely Considered: The International Youth Parliament Commission’s Report on the Impact of Globalization on the Young People: Oxfam Community Abroad. Krebs, W. A. (1994). Australian English Dictionary, Australia: Harper Collins Publishers Moore, K. A. , Jekielek, S. M. , Hair, E. C. & Scarupa, H. J. (2007). Mentoring: A Promising Strategy for Youth Development. Child Trends Research Brief. Retrieved May 4, 2008 from: http://www. childtrends. org/Files//Child_Trends-2002_02_01_RB_Mentoring. df Moore McBride, A. , Benitez, C. , Sherraden, M. (2003a) The forms and nature of civic service: A global assessment, research report. St. Louis: Centre for Social Development, Washington University. Ross, D. and P. Roberts. (1999). Income and Child Well-Being: A New Perspective on the Poverty Debate. Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development. Saint, Hartnett, and Strassner (2004). Higher Education in Nigeria: A Status Report, U. S. A. : World Education News and Reviews. Volume 17, Issue 13. Retrieved from htt//:www. wes. rg/Ewnr/04 Sept/feature. htm Subar S. T. and Ashiru A. O. (2007): Technology Education and National Development: The Place of Infrastructure, a Paper Presented at NAEAP International Conference 2007,University of Lagos, Nigeria. UNESCO(1997): 50 Years for Education. France. Paris: UNESCO UNESCO. (2000). World Education Report 2000. Paris: UNESCO. 178 pp. UNESCO. (2002b). Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity. Paris: UNESCO,1,(7-59). World Bank. (1996). Nigeria: Poverty in the midst of plenty. Washington, D. C. The World Bank. World Bank. 1999). World development report: knowledge for development. Washington, D. C. : The World Bank. 251 pages. World Bank. (2002a). World development indicators. Washington, D. C. : The World Bank. 212 pages. World Bank. (2002b). Constructing knowledge societies: new challenges for tertiary education. Washington, D. C. : The World Bank. 164 pag es. Webb, P. , von Braun, J. and Yohannes, Y. 1992. Famine in Ethiopia: Policy Implications of coping failure at national and household levels. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D. C.

A Queer Revolution Essays

A Queer Revolution Essays A Queer Revolution Essay A Queer Revolution Essay A Queer Revolution: Reconceptualizing the Debate Over Linguistic Reclamation Robin Brontsema University of Colorado at Boulder The debate over linguistic reclamation, the appropriation of a pejorative epithet by its target(s), is generally conceived of as a simple binary of support and opposition. I offer an alternative conceptualization that shows both the complex contrasts and commonalities within the debate. Specifically, I identify three perspectives: (1) that the term is inseparable from its pejoration and therefore its reclamation is opposed; (2) that it is separable from its pejoration and therefore its reclamation is supported; and (3) that it is inseparable from its pejoration and therefore its reclamation is supported. Additionally, by examining different goals within and across reclamations, I demonstrate the difficulty of assigning a fixed outcome of success or failure. Although the term queer serves as the primary case study, the terms black, nigger, cunt, and dyke supplement and expand the discussion from a specific study of queer to linguistic reclamation in general. 1. Introduction Hate speech intended to disable its target simultaneously enables its very resistance; its injurious power is the same fuel that feeds the fire of its counter-appropriation. Laying claim to the forbidden, the word as weapon is taken up and taken back by those it seeks to shackle- a self-emancipation that defies hegemonic linguistic ownership and the (ab)use of power. Linguistic reclamation, also known as linguistic resignification or reappropriation, refers to the appropriation of a pejorative epithet by its target(s). The linguist Melinda Yuen-Ching Chen offers the following definition: â€Å"The term ‘reclaiming’ refers to an array of theoretical and conventional interpretations of both linguistic and non-linguistic collective acts in which a derogatory sign or signifier is consciously employed by the ‘original’ target of the derogation, often in a positive or oppositional sense† (1998:130). At the heart of linguistic reclamation is the right of self-definition, of forging and naming one’s own existence. Because this self-definition is formed not in one’s own terms but those of another, because it necessarily depends upon the word’s pejoration for its revolutionary resignification, it is never without contestation or controversy. While the controversy over reclamation is generally reduced to a simple binary of support and opposition, I present an alternative conceptualization that accurately represents both the complex contrasts and commonalities within the debate. Additionally, by examining different goals within and across reclamations, I demonstrate the difficulty of assigning a fixed outcome of success or failure. Although queer is the primary case study, the terms black, nigger, cunt, and dyke supplement and expand the discussion from a specific study of queer to linguistic reclamation in general. Colorado Research in Linguistics. June 2004. Volume 17, Issue 1. Boulder: University of Colorado.  © 2004 by Robin Brontsema. 2Colorado Research in Linguistics, Volume 17 (2004) 2. Origins of Queer 2. 1. Non-sexual senses The Second Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (Simpson and Weiner 1989; henceforth OED) identifies queer’s origin as the Middle High German twer, signifying ‘cross’ or ‘oblique,’ and provides several definitions, including the following1: Adjective: 1a. Strange, odd, peculiar, eccentric, in appearance or character. Also, of questionable character, suspicious, dubious. 1b. Of a person (usually a man): homosexual. Hence, of things: pertaining to homosexuals or homosexuality. United States origin) Noun: A (usually male) homosexual. Also in combinations, as queer-bashing, the attacking of homosexuals; hence queer-basher. (Simpson and Weiner 1989: 1014) Queer’s original significations did not denote non-normative sexualities, but rather a general non-normativity separable from sexuality. Only later in its history would sexuality become the overriding denotation. Queer, then, initially could refer to str ange objects, places, experiences, persons, etc. ithout sexual connotations, as in the following literary examples taken from the OED: 1) â€Å"The emperor is in that quer case, that he is not able to bid battle† (Yonge’s Diary of 1621) 2) â€Å"I have heard of many queer Pranks among my Bedfordshire Neighbours† (Richardon’s Pamela of 1742) 3) â€Å"It was a queer fancy but he was a queer subject altogether† (Dicken’s Barnaby Rudge of 1840) (Simpson and Weiner 1989: 1014) 2. 2. Sexual senses Queer eventually did become associated almost exclusively with non-normative sexuality, an association which has persisted to the present. In contrast to its contemporary usage among queer theorists and self-identified queers (yet similar to its usage in the mass media), by the early 20th century, queer as sexually non-normative was restricted almost exclusively to male homosexual practices, as in the following example from the U. S. Children’s Bureau’s Practical Value of Scientific Study of Juvenile Delinquents of 1922: â€Å"A young man, easily ascertainable to be unusually fine in other characteristics, is probably ‘queer’ in sex tendency† (Simspon and Weiner 1989: 1014). As George Chauncey demonstrates in an examination of terms of self-reference of male homosexuals in New York prior to the Second World War, queer co-existed with fairy in the 1910s and 1920s to refer to â€Å"homosexuals† (1994: 15-16). Far from being synonyms, however, they carried extremely different in-group connotations. Differing from queers in their deviant gender status, fairies referred to effeminate, flamboyant males sexually involved with other men. Queers, in contrast, were more masculine men 1. For greater clarity, I have condensed the definitions and changed the original formatting. A Queer Revolution3 ho were sexually involved with other men and who generally shunned, even detested, the woman-like behavior of fairies. â€Å"The men who identified themselves as part of a distinct category of men primarily on the basis of their homosexual interest rather than their womanlike gender status usually called themselves queer† (Chauncey 1994: 16). Furthermore, the fairy-queer distinction was not based solely on gender, but on class as well: most queers were men from the middle class who potentially risked more in their professional lives were they to display the femininity typical of fairies (Chauncey 1994: 106). Because the effeminate fairies’ gender deviance was highly marked and visible, they served as the stereotypical representation of all homosexual men, although there were probably more masculine homosexuals passing as their heterosexual counterparts. Heterosexuals used queer and fairy interchangeably and without distinction, thereby homogenizing all men who engaged in sexual activity with other men, regardless of their degree of femininity/masculinity or self-identification (Chauncey 1994: 15). Homosexuals’ well-defined system of gender classification and the significant

Comparative Literature essays

Comparative Literature essays Although deference, self-righteousness, rashness, and self-delusion do not help the other characters in Hamlet to understand the truth or survive, Hamlets perpetual reflection prevents him from taking action. Hamlet seems to grasp the failings of the other characters and the inevitability of death, but cannot blindly accept anything to be the basis of truth. He is not sure whether a ghosts word should be the basis of murder: Faced with evidence that his uncle murdered his father, evidence that any other character in a play would believe, Hamlet becomes obsessed with proving his uncles guilt before trying to act, (Phillips). Hamlet even contemplates suicide, but ultimately decides that the terrors of this world are generally willingly preferred to the terrors of a world unknown. Still, his madness spurs him to impulsive action. He kills Polonius without knowing who is behind the tapestry, and he torments Ophelia without any clear intent. This suggests a man who truly believes in nothi ng, not even rational contemplation as a basis for truth. He tries being erratic and impetuous, but this yields no better results than his brooding melancholy. Centrally, he cannot submit himself to any belief that might indicate to him how to act and this is what allows Claudius and Laertes to kill him. The nagging difficulty is that there is very little in a human beings life can be certain; yet, we are still forced to act and make crucial decisions based upon our imperfect knowledge. Hamlet struggles with this problem directly by questioning everything that others may accept on faith or on a whim. This is Hamlets fatal flaw: he is frozen by contemplation. Taken together, every character in Hamlet exhibits a particular fatal flaw; but Hamlet himself seems to stand alone in the midst of the other characters actions. In other words, despite the fact that he takes part in the most significant actions o...

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Annotated Bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

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Business Law - Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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